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Two layer hypothesis
The 'Two Layer' Hypothesis, or immigration hypothesis, is an archaeological theory that suggests the human occupation of mainland Southeast Asia occurred over two distinct periods by two separate racial groups, hence the term 'layer'.〔Reich, D., Patterson, N., Kircher, M., Delfin, F., Nandineni, M.R., Pugach, I.,... Stoneking, M. (2011). Denisova admixture and the first modern human dispersals into Southeast Asia and Oceania. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 89(4), 516-528.〕 According to the Two Layer Hypothesis, early indigenous Australo-Melanesian peoples comprised the first population of Southeast Asia before their genetic integration with a second wave of inhabitants from East Asia, including Southern China, during the agricultural expansion of the Neolithic.〔Matsumura, H., Oxenham, M.F., Dodo, Y., Domett, K. Thuy, N.K., Cuong, N.L.,... Yamagata, M. (2008). Morphometric affinity of the late Neolithic human remains from Man Bac, Ninh Binh Province, Vietnam: key skeletons with which to debate the 'two layer' hypothesis. Anthropological Science, 116(2), 135-148〕〔Matsumura, H., Hudson, M.J. (2005). Dental perspectives on the population history of Southeast Asia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 127(2), 182-209.〕
The majority of evidence for the Two Layer Hypothesis consists of dental and morphometric analyses from archaeological sites throughout Southeast Asia, most prominently Thailand and Vietnam. The credibility of the Two Layer Hypothesis has been criticized due mainly to similarities between Southeast Asian and Chinese cranial and dental characteristics, excluding Australo-Melanesians.
== History ==
The first fossilized skeletal remains and indication of early 'Proto-Australian' Southeast Asian inhabitants surfaced in 1920 during an excavation by Dubois on the island of Java.〔Dubois, E. (1921). The proto-Australian fossil man of Wadjak, Java. Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Weteschappen Proceedings Series B Physical Sciences, 23, 1013-1051.〕 Despite this, a formal connection to mainland Southeast Asia and the suggestion of an initial population of Australomelanesoids was not suggested until 1952 by Koenigswald in his response to Hooijer,〔Koenigswald, G.H.R. (1952). Evidence of a prehistoric Australomelanesoid population in Malaya and Indonesia. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 8(1), 92-96.〕 who sharply criticized the attribution of 'big toothed' dental remains to early Australo-Melanesians.〔Hooijer, D.A. (1950). Fossil Evidence of Austromelanesian Migrations in Malaysia? Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 6(4), 416-422.〕
The immigration hypothesis proposed by Koenigswald was formally termed the 'Two Layer' model by Jacob Teuku. In 1967, Teuku analyzed the cranial and dental proportions of 152 adult skeletal samples recovered from prehistoric sites in Malaysia and Indonesia, the majority displaying robust jaws and teeth, prominent glabellae, and slender, elongated limbs. Teuku argued these characteristics correspond to the Australo-Melanesian population proposed by Koenigswald that predated the East Asian immigrants of the Neolithic; also suggesting the initial inhabitants were likely forced south of Southeast Asia's mainland by the second wave of migrants, due to resource competition or conflict.〔〔Jacob, T. (1967). Some problems pertaining to the racial history of the Indonesian region: a study of human skeletal and dental remains from several prehistoric sites in Indonesia and Malaysia. Drukkerij Neerlandia.〕
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